Social & Cultural Geography
Spatial dimensions of culture, identity, religion, language, and social structures.
Official Syllabus
NEP-2020 Syllabus
**(4 Credit, Theory: 45hrs, Practical: 30hrs)*
**Unit I:* - Definition and Nature of Social Geography; Social Geography in the Realm of Social Sciences - Concept of Social Structure and its importance in Indian Social Realities - Understanding early Cultural differentiation and Social Formation in India (Mahajanapadas, Mughal/British Provinces)
**Unit II:* - Concepts of Social Justice and Wellbeing; Social Inclusion and Exclusion - Geographies of Gated Communities and Slums - Social Empowerment: Major Schemes of Social Empowerment in India - Affordable Housing Schemes for Low and Moderate-income Resident in India (PMAY, BPGY)
**Unit III:* - Meaning and definition of Culture and Cultural traits - Types of Culture: Folk and Popular Culture, Cultural Realms, Cultural Hearth - Diffusion of Innovations: Spatial Dimensions - Concept, Types and Conservation of Geo-heritage
UGC NET Syllabus
**II. Social Geography* - Nature and scope of social geography - Social structure and processes - Social Well-being and Quality of Life, Social Exclusion - Spatial distribution of social groups in India (Tribe, Caste, Religion and Language) - Environment and Human Health, Diseases Ecology - Nutritional Status (classification and spatial/seasonal patterns in India) - Health Care Planning and Policies in India, Medical Tourism
**III. Cultural Geography* - Nature and scope of cultural geography - Concept of Culture, Cultural Complexes, Areas and Region, Cultural Heritage, Cultural Ecology, Cultural Convergence - Theories of tribal groups - Dwelling places as cultural expressions
Part A: Common Topics (NEP-2020 & UGC NET)
These topics are covered in both the NEP-2020 undergraduate syllabus and the UGC NET syllabus.
Nature and Scope of Social Geography
| Syllabus | Topic Details |
|---|---|
| NEP-2020 | Unit I — Definition and Nature of Social Geography |
| UGC NET | Nature and scope of social geography |
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- Social Geography: Study of spatial patterns of social phenomena, social structures, and social groups in interaction with their environment.
- Nature: Evolved from welfare geography and radical geography. Focuses on social justice, inequality, deprivation, and social well-being.
- Scope: Includes studies of caste, tribe, religion, language, gender, poverty, health, education, housing, and social segregation.
- Approaches: Positivist (spatial science), Humanist (lived experience of social groups), Radical (structural inequalities), Feminist (gendered spaces).
Social Structure and Indian Realities
| Syllabus | Topic Details |
|---|---|
| NEP-2020 | Unit I — Concept of Social Structure; Indian Social Realities |
| UGC NET | Social structure and processes; Spatial distribution of social groups in India (Tribe, Caste, Religion, Language) |
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- Social Structure: The patterned social arrangements in society that are emergent from and determinant of the actions of individuals (e.g., class, caste).
- Caste System (Jati/Varna): Hierarchical social stratification unique to India. Influences residential segregation (Dalit bastis), occupational structure, and land ownership.
- Tribal Groups (Adivasis): Indigenous populations with distinct cultures, mostly concentrated in Central India (Gonds, Santhals, Bhils) and Northeast India. Pastoral nomads like the Gujjar Bakrawalas follow transhumance, are mainly Muslims (not Hindus), and are affected by restricted grazing due to strict forest conservation laws.
- Linguistic Diversity: Language families form major cultural fault lines. Key groups include Indo-Aryan (e.g., Bengali), Dravidian (e.g., Telugu), Sino-Tibetan (e.g., Lahuli), and Austric (e.g., Santhali).
- Dravidian Family: Includes languages like Malto, Gondi, and Tulu.
- Religious Composition: Hindu majority with significant Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Buddhist, and Jain communities. Spatial concentration patterns. Indian Muslims display a high degree of ethnic and cultural diversity, largely due to local conversions.
- Regional Social Groups:
- Buddhists: Significant presence in Sikkim.
- Monkhmer: Associated with Meghalaya.
- Konyak: A Naga group in Nagaland.
- Nayar: Associated with the Malabar coast.
- **Contemporary Social Trends:*
- Medical Tourism: In recent years, India has received the maximum number of medical tourists from Bangladesh and Afghanistan.
- SC Population by Religion: Among the religious categories in India, the highest percentage of Scheduled Caste (SC) population is associated with Sikhism.
Language Geography — Detailed (NET Notes — Pulakesh Pradhan)
Key Facts
- 95% of world population speaks **100 common languages*
- 50% of world population speaks **10 most common languages*
- Proto-language — a hypothetical lost parent language from which actual languages are derived
Types of Dialect
- Geographic Dialect — spoken by people of the same area or locality
- Social Dialect — used by people of the same social class, educational level or occupational group
Four Major Language Families of India
Indo-European | Dravidian | Austric | Sino-Tibetan
1. Indo-European Family (Aryan)
**Dardic / Aryan Language:*
- Shina group: Kashmiri, Shina Proper, Kohistani
- **Khowar / Chatari / Chitrali*
- **Kafiristan or Nuristani*
**Indo-Aryan Languages:* Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Sindhi, Kachchi, Marathi, Oriya, Sanskrit, Assamese, Urdu
2. Austric Language Family
**Munda or Kol Language:*
- Consists of **14 tribal languages*
- Santhali, Mundari, Ho, Binhor, Bhumiej, Kowna, Konku
**Mon-Khmer Language:*
- Khasi and Nicobari — Andaman & Nicobar Islands
- Khasi — by Meghalaya
3. Dravidian Language Family
**Northern Dravidian:*
- Telugu, Gondi dialects, Kurukh (Oraon), Maler (Malpahariya), Kui (Kandh), Parji, Kolami and others
**South Dravidian Language:*
- Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam (also spoken in Sri Lanka)
4. Sino-Tibetan Language Family
**Tibeto-Himalayan Group:*
- Himalayan Group — 4 languages: Chamba, Lahauli, Kannauri, Lepcha
- Bhutia Group: Tibetan, Balli, Ladakhi, Lahauli, Sherpa, Sikkim Bhutia
**North Assam Language:*
- 6 languages: Aka, Dafla, Abor, Miri, Mishmi, Mishing
**North Assam–Myanmar Language:*
- Boro (Bodo), Naga, Cochin, Kuki-Chin, Myanmar
Linguistic Survey of India
- Conducted by: Sir George A. Grierson
- Found: 179 languages and **544 dialects*
- 422 million speakers = 41% of the total population
- India has **22 official languages*
Social Justice, Wellbeing, and Exclusion
| Syllabus | Topic Details |
|---|---|
| NEP-2020 | Unit II — Concepts of Social Justice and Wellbeing; Social Inclusion and Exclusion |
| UGC NET | Social Well-being and Quality of Life, Social Exclusion |
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- Social Wellbeing: Beyond economic growth (GDP) to include quality of life metrics (HDI, PQLI) — health, education, housing, environment. The wellbeing approach of “Who Gets What, Where, and How” in geography was propounded by D. M. Smith.
- Social Justice (David Harvey): Equitable distribution of society’s resources and opportunities across space. Territorial social justice.
- Social Exclusion: Process by which individuals or groups are systematically marginalized from rights, resources, and opportunities normally available to members of society (e.g., untouchability, gender discrimination).
- Spatial Segregation: Physical separation of groups (residential segregation by race, class, or caste).
Cultural Geography and Core Concepts
| Syllabus | Topic Details |
|---|---|
| NEP-2020 | Unit III — Meaning and definition of Culture and Cultural traits |
| UGC NET | Nature and scope of cultural geography; Concept of Culture, Cultural Complexes |
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- Cultural Geography: Study of cultural products and norms and their variations across spaces and places. (Pioneered by Carl Sauer - Berkeley School).
- Culture: A specialized behavioural pattern, total way of life of a group — material (tools, housing) and non-material (beliefs, language, religion). **Culture is shared, adaptive, and variable; it is not genetically transferred.*
- Cultural Trait: Smallest distinguishing item of culture (e.g., wearing a turban, using chopsticks).
- Cultural Complex: A related set of interrelated cultural traits (e.g., cattle keeping complex in East Africa, or the preparation of rice pudding for Pongal and Bhogi).
- Cultural Region: A distinct area characterized by a specific culture or cultural group. **Cultural regions are generally not uniform in size.*
- Cultural Realm: A set of cultural regions grouped together (e.g., the South-east Asian cultural realm is a transitional culture where different cultures have mingled).
- Cultural Hearth: Nuclear areas where cultural traits, ideas, and technologies develop and diffuse.
- Cultural Landscape: The built environment and human imprint on the natural landscape.
- Cultural Integration: The interlocking subsystems of a culture.
- Acculturation: The adoption of cultural traits, such as language, by one group under the influence of another.
- Syncretism: The process of fusion of traits from different cultures to form a new cultural element (e.g., in religions or architecture).
- Cultural Transmission: Culture is transmitted from generation to generation primarily through social and cultural vehicles (especially language), rather than genetic factors.
- Cultural Divergence: The tendency for cultures to become increasingly dissimilar with time.
- Cultural Ecology: The relationship between a culture group and its natural environment (study of human adaptations).
- Maladaptation: Occurs when a cultural practice leads to environmental degradation (e.g., overgrazing leading to desertification).
Cultural Geography — Key Concepts (NET Notes — Pulakesh Pradhan)
Culture
- Shared beliefs, values, norms, language, art, religion, and customs of a group
- Carl O. Sauer — founder of Cultural Geography; The Morphology of Landscape (1925)
- Cultural Landscape — modification of natural landscape by a cultural group over time
Cultural Region
- An area where a group of related cultural traits occurs
- Formal cultural region — homogenous core area
- Functional cultural region — organised around a focal point (node)
- Vernacular cultural region — people’s perception of belonging to an area
Cultural Hearths, Realms, and Diffusion
| Syllabus | Topic Details |
|---|---|
| NEP-2020 | Unit III — Cultural Realms of the World, Cultural Hearth; Diffusion of Innovations |
| UGC NET | Concept of culture-areas and cultural regions; Cultural Convergence |
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- Cultural Hearth: Area where a culture or cultural trait originates (e.g., Mesopotamia, Indus Valley, Mesoamerica).
- Cultural Realm: Large geographical region where culture traits maintain homogeneity (e.g., Islamic Realm, Slavic Realm, Latin American Realm) — Broek and Webb’s classification.
- Cultural Diffusion: Spread of cultural traits from a hearth.
- Expansion Diffusion: Contagious (snowballing), Hierarchical (top-down), Stimulus (idea spreads but modified).
- Relocation Diffusion: Physical movement of people carrying the culture.
- Cultural Convergence: Cultures becoming more alike due to globalization and technology.
Cultural Diffusion — Detailed (NET Notes — Pulakesh Pradhan)
- Expansion diffusion — idea spreads from a source outward; source retains the trait
- Contagious diffusion — spreads through direct contact
- Hierarchical diffusion — spreads from large to small centres
- Relocation diffusion — idea carried by people who migrate; source may lose the trait
Cultural Hearth
- The place of origin of a major cultural innovation
- Major cultural hearths: Mesopotamia, Nile Valley, Indus Valley, Huang He, Mesoamerica
Heritage and Cultural Landscapes
| Syllabus | Topic Details |
|---|---|
| NEP-2020 | Unit III — Concept, Types and Conservation of Geo-heritage |
| UGC NET | Cultural Heritage; Dwelling places as cultural expressions |
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- Cultural Landscape: The visible imprint of human activity on the landscape (Sauer’s morphology of landscape).
- Dwelling Places: Folk housing styles reflecting local climate, materials, and cultural beliefs (e.g., Igloos, Yurts, Stilt houses, Courtyard houses in India).
- Geo-heritage: Sites of geological and geomorphological significance that provide scientific, educational, and cultural value (e.g., Lonar Crater, columnar basalts).
- Conservation: UNESCO World Heritage sites (tangible), and Intangible Cultural Heritage (e.g., the Durga Puja of Kolkata), reflecting the role of local communities in protecting heritage as part of identity.
Geographies of Slums and Gated Communities
| Syllabus | Topic Details |
|---|---|
| NEP-2020 | Unit II — Geographies of Gated Communities and Slums |
| UGC NET | Social structure and processes (Urban context) |
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- Slums: Heavily populated urban informal settlements characterized by substandard housing, squalor, and lack of basic services. Often a result of rural-urban migration and poverty.
- Gated Communities: Residential areas with restricted access, walls/fences, and privatized public spaces.
- Spatial Polarization: Increasing divide between wealthy (gated enclaves) and poor (slums) within the same city — fragmenting the urban fabric and reducing social cohesion.
Part B: NEP-2020 Specific Topics
These topics are part of the NEP-2020 undergraduate programme only.
Historical Social Formations in India
| Syllabus | Topic Details |
|---|---|
| NEP-2020 | Unit I — Early Cultural differentiation (Mahajanapadas, Mughal, British) |
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- Mahajanapadas (c. 600 BCE): Sixteen ancient kingdoms/republics in the Indo-Gangetic plain — early state formation, urbanization, and distinct regional cultures (Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa).
- Mughal Provinces (Subahs): Administrative reorganization of space that left deep cultural, architectural, and linguistic (Urdu) impacts.
- British Provinces: Reorganization of Indian geography for colonial extraction and administration (Presidencies of Bengal, Bombay, Madras) — created new urban centers and transport networks, disrupting traditional spatial economies.
Social Empowerment and Housing Schemes
| Syllabus | Topic Details |
|---|---|
| NEP-2020 | Unit II — Major Schemes of Social Empowerment; Affordable Housing Schemes |
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- Social Empowerment: Policies aiming to uplift marginalized groups (SC/ST/OBC/Women) through education, employment (reservations/affirmative action), and financial inclusion.
- Affordable Housing: Essential for wellbeing and dignity.
- Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY): ‘Housing for All’ — urban and rural components.
- Biju Pucca Ghar Yojana (BPGY): Odisha state-specific scheme to convert kachha houses to pucca houses for rural poor.
- Geographical Impact: Transforming rural and urban landscapes, altering socio-economic mobility.
Part C: UGC NET Specific Topics
These topics are part of the UGC NET syllabus only.
Environment, Human Health, and Disease Ecology
| Syllabus | Topic Details |
|---|---|
| UGC NET | Environment and Human Health, Diseases Ecology |
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- Medical/Health Geography: Spatial aspects of health and healthcare delivery.
- Disease Ecology: Interaction between humans, pathogens, and the environment (Triangle of Human Ecology: Habitat, Population, Behaviour).
- Endemic vs. Epidemic vs. Pandemic: Spatial scale of disease outbreaks.
- Environmental Links: Water-borne diseases (cholera), vector-borne diseases (malaria, dengue - linked to climate and standing water), air-pollution related diseases (respiratory issues in cities).
- Epidemiological Transition: Shift from infectious/communicable diseases to chronic/degenerative diseases as a society develops.
Nutritional Status and Health Care Planning
| Syllabus | Topic Details |
|---|---|
| UGC NET | Nutritional Status; Health Care Planning and Policies in India, Medical Tourism |
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- Nutritional Status: Spatial and seasonal distribution of malnutrition, stunting, and wasting in India. Links to agricultural productivity, poverty, and dietary habits.
- Health Care Planning: Distribution of health infrastructure (PHCs, CHCs, district hospitals). Urban bias in healthcare provision. Rural-urban/inter-state disparities in doctor-patient ratios.
- National Health Mission (NHM): Policy intervention to address health inequities.
- Medical Tourism: Travel for medical treatment. India as a hub due to quality private healthcare, skilled doctors, and lower costs compared to Western countries. Impact on local healthcare systems (brain drain to private sector).
Theories of Tribal Groups
| Syllabus | Topic Details |
|---|---|
| UGC NET | Theories of tribal groups |
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- Anthropological/Geographical Approaches: Study of indigenous populations.
- Isolation vs. Integration vs. Assimilation:
- Isolation (Elwin): ‘National Park’ policy to preserve tribal culture from outside exploitation.
- Assimilation (Ghurye): Viewed tribals as ‘backward Hindus’ who should integrate into the mainstream.
- Integration (Nehru): ‘Panchsheel’ policy — integration without destroying their distinctive culture and land rights.
- Spatial Challenges: Displacement by development projects, forest rights conflicts, cultural erosion.
Tribes of India — State-wise Distribution (NET Notes — Pulakesh Pradhan)
Definition
- A tribe is a social group sharing common ancestry, culture, language and territory
- Usually inhabit **forest, hill and remote areas*
- Recognised as Scheduled Tribes (ST) under Indian Constitution (Article 342)
Jammu & Kashmir
Bakarwal, Buddhists of Ladakh, Gaddi, Gujjars, Pahadi
Himachal Pradesh
Bhot, Bhotia, Gaddi, Gujjar, Kanaura, Kinnar, Lahauli, Lamba, Pangwal, Sakarwal
Punjab
Bhot, Bodh, Gaddi, Swangwala
Rajasthan
Andh, Banda, Bamcha, Bhaina, Bhattra, Bhil, Bhila, Bhujiya, Binjhwar, Birhul, Charan, Chodhara, Dhanka, Dhanwar, Dhodia, Dhor, Dubla, Gadaba, Gamit, Garasya, Gond, Halber, Kamar, Kandh, Kathodi, Kaudhai, Kharia, Karwar, Kokna, Kokni, Kol, Koli, Kolam, Konku, Korwa, Koya, Kukna, Kunbi, Kuwar, Mahar, Meena, Naikda, Nagesia, Nihal, Ongon, Padhan, Panja, Patelia, Puna-Bhils, Pomla, Pradhan, Rathawa, Rawat, Saharia, Saonto, Sawar, Siddi, Thakur, Thoti, Varli, Vetolia
Gujarat
Bhil, Bhanka, Dubla, Garasya, Gond, Kathodia, Ratania, Siddi, Vaghri, Varli
Madhya Pradesh
Agariya, Andh, Baiga, Bhil, Bhumia, Birhor, Biyan, Chanwar, Dhanwar, Damor, Gadaba, Garasia, Gond, Kamar, Keen, Khairwar, Khond, Kol, Korwa, Meena, Nagesia, Nat, Nihal, Oraon, Panika, Pao, Palika, Pradhan, Saharia, Saonta, Saur, Sawar
Maharashtra
Audh, Bhil, Birhor, Dhanwar, Dubla, Garsaya, Gond, Kharia, Kolani, Kol, Oraon, Thakur, Thoti
Karnataka
Adiyan, Barda, Bamcha, Bavacha, Bhil, Chodhara, Chenchu, Dhanka, Dhodia, Dubla, Ekliga, Gadaba, Gamta, Hasalaru, Hakki, Kadu, Kaikurba, Kathodi, Kokna, Koldha, Koya, Koruba, Kudia, Kaniyan, Kuruman, Kota, Koraga, Konda-Reddi, Kammara, Kurumba, Malaikudi, Maleru, Meda, Marti, Mudugan, Malaikandi, Madian, Naikda, Paliyar, Pardhi, Patalia, Pomla, Porama, Pulayan, Puniyan, Rathawa, Rajgond, Solga, Soligaru, Thoti, Thoda, Varava, Varli, Vitalia, Yenawa
Kerala
Adiyan, Enulay, Enavallan, Kadan, Kannikar, Kochuvelan, Kadiyan, Kammara, Kanuayakan, Kochu, Kondakaksh, Konaga, Kota, Kudia, Kurumbas, Korichachban, Kuruman, Malai, Mallayan, Mannar, Malai-kandi, Matri, Pallyan, Palliyar, Paniyan, Palyan, Pulayan, Puniyan, Urali, Ulladan, Vishavan
Tamil Nadu
Adiyan, Avidian, Enavalana, Erulia, Irular, Kadar, Kakush, Kammard, Kaniyan, Koch, Konda, Konda-Reddy, Konaga, Kota, Kudia, Kulayan, Kochuvelan, Kuruman, Kurumba, Malai-Aryan, Malsar, Malikindi, Malyali, Malyan, Mannan, Mudugaar, Muthuvan, Paliyar, Paniyan, Polliyan, Reddi, Sholga, Uralay, Ulladan, Urali, Vishvan
Andhra Pradesh & Telangana
Andh, Bagata, Balmiki, Bhil, Chenchu, Dopa, Dubla, Gadaba, Gond, Jatapu, Kammara, Konda, Konda-Reddi, Khonds, Kolias, Koya, Kulia, Kuttunayakan, Lambadi, Malis, Manne-Doras, Poraj, Sabra, Sugalis, Thoti, Valmiki, Yanadia, Yenadi, Yenu Kula
Odisha
Bhatta, Banjara, Bavacha, Bathudi, Baiga, Bolada, Bhumiya, Bhuyan, Bharya, Binjhal, Binher, Binhor, Chenchu, Dal, Desua, Gondia, Gond, Kora, Ho, Juang, Kamman, Khania, Khond, Kisan, Kol, Koli, Konda, Kotia, Kuli, Kond, Kolha, Lodh, Lohar, Madia, Mirdha, Munda, Oraon, Paithia, Parenga, Pondo, Poraja, Rajor, Shabar, Santhal, Sonti, Souna
Chhattisgarh
Bhil, Binhor, Gadaba, Gond, Khand, Kol, Mariya, Munda, Oraon, Mundar
Jharkhand
Binjia, Binhor, Khania, Kanwa
West Bengal
Asur, Baiga, Badia, Banjara, Banaik, Bhumij, Binhor, Binjia, Bhoomiji, Bhulia, Cheo, Chie, Chakma, Garo, Gond, Ho, Jahang, Khond, Kora, Karmali, Kharwar, Khund, Kisan, Konwa, Lepcha, Lodha, Khenia, Lepeha, Lohar, Magh, Mahli, Malpaharia, Mahali, Malla, Mech, Mou, Munda, Oraon, Rabha, Santal, Saunia, Savar, Sholaga
Bihar
Asur, Baiga, Banjara, Bedia, Binjhia, Binhor, Binjia, Chena, Chik, Gond, Ho, Karmali, Kharia, Kherwar, Khond, Kora, Konwa, Lohar, Mahli, Mal-Paharia, Munda, Oraon, Parhaiya, Santhal, Paharia, Saunia, Savar
Uttar Pradesh
Banjara, Bhoksa, Bhotia, Buxa, Hanju, Jaunsari, Kangar, Raji, Sainsi, **Tharu*
Uttarakhand
Bhulia, Buksa, Jaunsan, Raji, **Tharu*
Arunachal Pradesh
Abon, Adi, Aka, Apatani, Dafla, Digaru, Gamba, Khamti, Miji, Mishmi, Monba, Nokte, Singhpo
Assam
Boro, Chakma, Dimsa, Devari, Hoja, Hozai, Kachari, Lalung, Mikir, Miri, Xaxa
Meghalaya
Garo, Hmar, Jaintia, Khasi, Pawi
Manipur
Aimol, Hmar, Kuki, Mayon, Ralte, Zou
Nagaland
Angami, Ao, Konyak, Kuki, Lotha, Mikir, Mon, Rengama, Sema
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Andamanese, Chompens, Jarwa (Jarawa), Nicobari, Onge, **Sentinelese*
Tribes Practising Hunting in Forests
| State | Tribes |
|---|---|
| Andhra Pradesh | Yoda, Chenchu, Chandi |
| Kerala | Kadar, Malapatram, Kurumba |
| Tamil Nadu | Paliyan |
| Andaman & Nicobar | Onge, Jarawa, Sentinelese |
| Uttar Pradesh | Raji |
| Meghalaya | Hill Garo |
| Chotanagpur | Binhor, Korwa, Hill-Kharia |
| Odisha | Juang |
Tribes Practising Shifting Cultivation (Jhum / Jhuming)
- Most tribes in hilly areas of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and **Tripura*
- Asur, Gond, Baiga, Munda — Madhya Pradesh
Tribes Practising Plain Area Cultivation
- Bodo, Miri, Xaxa — Assam
- Gonds — Chhattisgarh
Social Geography — Detailed Definitions (NET Notes — Pulakesh Pradhan)
Social Inequality in Geography
Welfare Geography