Population Geography

Spatial distribution, density, growth, composition, and migration of human populations.

Author

Geography Team

Official Syllabus

NEP-2020 Syllabus

Core I Paper III — Population Geography

**(4 Credit, Theory: 45hrs, Practical: 30hrs)*

*The detailed unit-wise NEP syllabus for Population Geography covers:

Nature, scope, and recent trends in population geography
Patterns of world distribution, growth, and density of population
Population policy issues
Patterns and processes of migration
Demographic transition
Population-resource regions

UGC NET Syllabus

Unit V — Population Geography

Nature, scope, and recent trends
Patterns of world distribution, growth, and density of population
Population policy issues
Patterns and processes of migration
Demographic transition
Population-resource regions

Population Geography (Paper II / Advanced Topics)

Sources of population data (census, sample surveys, vital statistics, data reliability and errors)
World Population Distribution (measures, patterns and determinants), World Population Growth
Demographic Transition, Theories of Population Growth (Malthus, Sadler, Ricardo)
Fertility and Mortality Analysis (indices, determinants and world patterns)
Migration (types, causes, consequences and models)
Population Composition and Characteristics (age, sex, rural-urban, occupational structure, educational levels)
Population Policies in Developed and Developing Countries

NET Population Geography — Important Topics & Traditions

High-Yield Topics

World Population Distribution
Growth + Density of Population
Population Policy
Migration
Demographic Transition
Population Resource Region
Nature, Scope of Settlement Geography
Subject matter and Recent Trends

Four Traditions of Geography (William D. Pattison)

Spatial / Locational Tradition
Areal / Regional Tradition
Man–Land Tradition
Earth Science Tradition

Welcome to the Population Geography module of Geography OpenCourseWare.

Part A: Common Topics (NEP-2020 & UGC NET)

These topics are covered in both the NEP-2020 undergraduate syllabus and the UGC NET syllabus.

World Population Distribution, Growth, and Density

📘 Syllabus Coverage

Syllabus	Topic Details
NEP-2020	Patterns of world distribution, growth, and density
UGC NET	World Population Distribution (measures, patterns and determinants), Growth

Get the Presentation ↗ | Watch the Video ↗

Key Concepts

Distribution Patterns: Ecumene (inhabited areas) vs. non-ecumene. Concentration in Asia (~60%), Europe, eastern North America.
Determinants of Distribution: Climate, terrain, soil fertility, water availability, mineral resources, industrial development, historical factors.
Measures of Density: Arithmetic density, physiological density, agricultural density. Mountainous regions often exhibit low arithmetic density but high physiological density.
Population Growth: Prehistoric to modern — exponential growth since Industrial Revolution. According to the United Nations, the world population reached the one billion mark for the first time in 1804.
Global Distribution: Approximately two-thirds of the world population live in the areas between 20° and 60° North.
Growth Rate: Crude birth rate, crude death rate, natural increase rate, doubling time.
Regional Variations: High growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia; low/negative growth in Europe, Japan.

Population Distribution, Density & Growth (NET Notes)

Key Definitions

Demography: Statistical analysis of population
Population Geography: Spatial variation of population and its distribution

Measures of Population Distribution

Mean Point / Centre of Population: The most popular measuring of population centre
Median Point of Population: Calculated with the help of median lines
Concept of Population Potential: Stewart and Warntz (1958)

Density Formulas & Types

Arithmetic Density: Total Population / Total Land Area
Physiological Density: Total Population / Cultivated Land
Agricultural Density: Rural Population / Cultivated Land
Economic Density (George): ED = NK/SK (N=inhabitants, K’=per capita requirement, S=area, K=resource produced)
**Scholars:*
- G.T. Trewartha: Arithmetic, Nutritional, Agricultural
- Vincent: Comparative density (population correlated to land weighted by productivity)

World Population Distribution — Key Facts

Asia: 60% of World Pop, 29.5% Landmass (Density: 246)
80% of total population concentrated in 20% of land area
56% of population between 0–200 m altitude (Clark; Staszewski)
Trewartha: About half of the population occupies 5% of total earth area
Latitudinal: 20°–40°N → 50%+ of world population
Birth/Death: Every 10 births: 9 in LDC, 1 in MDC. Out of 80 infant deaths: 79 occur in LDC.
Wolfanger (1935): Podzols of higher middle latitudes and mature laterites of the tropics → intensive cultivation

India’s Population Growth (Census Data)

1921: ‘Year of Great Divide’ (population decline, −0.31%)
1971 and 1981: Highest growth period in India (+24.80% and +24.66%)
1991: Lowest sex ratio (927)

Demographic Transition

📘 Syllabus Coverage

Syllabus	Topic Details
NEP-2020	Demographic transition
UGC NET	Demographic Transition, Theories of Population Growth (Malthus, Sadler, Ricardo)

Get the Presentation ↗ | Watch the Video ↗

Key Concepts

Demographic Transition Model (DTM): Describes transition from high birth/death rates to low birth/death rates. The growth of population through the successive stages of the DTM has the appearance of a Sigmoid curve (S-curve).
- Stage 1: High stationary — high birth and death rates, slow growth (pre-industrial). It took about 2 million years for the human population to reach the 1 billion mark.
- Stage 2: Early expanding — declining death rates, high birth rates, rapid growth
- Stage 3: Late expanding — declining birth rates and natural increase of population begins to slow down.
- Stage 4: Low stationary — low birth and death rates, slow growth/stable population. Birth and death rates converge at a low level in the late stage of demographic transition. The demographic transition model suggests that the mortality rate determines the fertility rate in the form of a positive relationship.
- Stage 5: Declining — birth rate below death rate, population decline (Germany, Japan). Scandinavian countries have a regressive age-sex population structure with a negative population growth rate.
Zero Population Growth (ZPG): A condition of demographic balance where the number of people in a specified population neither grows nor declines. It is achieved when Births + Immigration = Deaths + Emigration.
Population Growth in India: The long-term trend can be best represented through the exponential trend method.
Constrictive Population Pyramids: Denote populations that are elderly and ageing.
DALY: Disability Adjusted Life Years.
Cumulative Disadvantage: Refers to the compounding effects of multiple forms of exclusion across an individual’s life course.
Malthusian Theory: Population grows geometrically, food supply arithmetically — positive and preventive checks.
Sadler’s Theory: Reproductive power inversely proportional to population density.
Ricardo’s Theory: Law of diminishing returns in agriculture limits food production.
Neo-Malthusian and Anti-Malthusian Views: Modern debates on population and resources.

Demographic Transition Models (NET Notes)

Evolution of the Model

Landry (1909): First attempt at a demographic model
W.S. Thompson (1929): 3-category model; originator
Frank Notestein (1945): Comprehensive model (3 stages: High Growth, Transitional Growth, Incipient Decline)
C.P. Blacker (1947): 5-stage model (High Stationary, Early Expanding, Late Expanding, Low Stationary, Declining)
Coale & Hoover (1958): Role of modernisation and development

W.S. Thompson’s 3 Hypotheses

Decline in mortality comes before decline in fertility
Fertility eventually declines to match mortality
Socio-economic transformation of a society takes place simultaneously with its demographic transformation

Migration: Types, Causes, and Consequences

📘 Syllabus Coverage

Syllabus	Topic Details
NEP-2020	Patterns and processes of migration
UGC NET	Migration (types, causes, consequences and models)

Get the Presentation ↗ | Watch the Video ↗

Key Concepts

Types of Migration: Internal (rural-urban, inter-state) vs. International; Voluntary vs. Forced; Temporary vs. Permanent; Seasonal.
Causes: Push factors (poverty, drought, conflict, unemployment) and Pull factors (employment, education, amenities, political stability). Low employment opportunity in rural areas plays a deciding role in rural to urban migration.
Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration: Most migrants travel short distances.
Lee’s Theory: Push-pull model with intervening obstacles and personal factors.
Migration System Theory: Focuses on historical linkage, feedback loops, and network dynamics.
New Economics of Labour Migration: Household level decision-making to diversify income.
Gravity Model: Migration proportional to population sizes, inversely proportional to distance.
Mobility Transition Model (Zelinsky): Suggests that the type and scale of migration change as a society moves through the stages of the Demographic Transition Model, conditioned by population growth, level of urbanization, and technology.
Small Distance Migration: For small distance migration, female migration often overtakes male migration due to the patriarchal structure of the society (primarily marriage-related migration).
Arthur Lewis Model (Dual Economy): Describes the transition of labor from the rural subsistence sector (surplus labor) to the urban industrial sector.
Consequences: Economic (remittances, brain drain/gain), social (cultural exchange, family disruption), demographic (age-sex structure), political (refugee crises). Note that the improvement in the rural economy due to lower population pressure is generally not considered a direct consequence of accelerated rural to urban migration.
Feminisation of the Farm Sector: Gradually on the rise because of the increase in male migration from rural to urban areas.
Refugee and Displacement: UNHCR data, internally displaced persons (IDPs), climate refugees.

Migration Theories & Models (NET Notes)

1. Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration (1885)

Short distance moves; long distance for industry/commerce
Agricultural to industrial areas
Most migration is rural to urban, proceeds step by stage
Females more migratory over short distances; males dominate international
Major cause is economic
Each stream produces a counter-stream

2. Push–Pull Theory — E.S. Lee (1966)

Push: Reasons to move OUT
Pull: Reasons to move INTO
Intervening Obstacles: Barriers between origin and destination
Volume is related to diversity of territory and difficulty of surmounting obstacles

3. Gravity Model — W.J. Reilly (1929)

Formula: \(M_{ij} = k \cdot \frac{P_i \cdot P_j}{d_{ij}^2}\)
Proportional to population size, inversely proportional to distance squared.
Derived from ‘Law of Retail Gravitation’ and Social Physics.

4. Intervening Opportunities — Stouffer (1940)

No relation between mobility and distance; depends on intervening opportunities.
Formula: \(y = \frac{V_x}{x} k\)

5. Zelinsky’s Migration Transition Model

Linked to Demographic Transition:
- Stage 2: Rural to Urban
- Stage 3: Urban to Urban
- Stage 4: Urban agglomeration / Counter-urbanisation

Internal Migration in India (Stream-wise)

Streams: Rural-Rural (64.21%), Rural-Urban (17.67%), Urban-Urban (11.70%), Urban-Rural (6.97%)
Scale: Intra-state (88.18%), Inter-state (11.82%)

Population Policies

📘 Syllabus Coverage

Syllabus	Topic Details
NEP-2020	Population policy issues
UGC NET	Population Policies in Developed and Developing Countries

Get the Presentation ↗ | Watch the Video ↗

Key Concepts

Pro-natalist Policies: Encourage higher birth rates — France (family allowances), Japan (childcare subsidies), Russia.
Anti-natalist Policies: Discourage high birth rates — China (One-Child Policy, now Three-Child), India (family planning programme).
India’s Population Policy: National Population Policy 2000 — reducing TFR to 2.1, improving maternal health, contraception access.
Population Control Methods: Family planning (contraception), education (especially female), economic development, legislative measures.
Ethical Considerations: Coercive vs. voluntary approaches, gender equity, reproductive rights.
Population and Development: Relationship between population growth, economic development, and sustainable resource use.

Population Policy & Electoral Reforms (NET Notes)

India’s Population Policy

1952: National Family Planning Programme (First country to launch official family planning)
1976: National Population Policy (Emergency period; coercive sterilisation)
2000: National Population Policy 2000 (TFR target of 2.1 by 2010)

Electoral Reforms in India

61st Amendment Act (1988): Voting age reduced from 21 to 18 years
EVMs introduced: 1989 (experimental 1988 in Rajasthan, MP, Delhi)
EPIC (1993): Elector’s Photo Identity Card
Goa (1999): First general election completely using EVMs

Part B: NEP-2020 Specific Topics

These topics are part of the NEP-2020 undergraduate programme only.

Population-Resource Regions

📘 Syllabus Coverage

Syllabus	Topic Details
NEP-2020	Population-resource regions

Get the Presentation ↗ | Watch the Video ↗

Key Concepts

Concept: Relationship between population size, resources availability, and technology level determines carrying capacity.
Ackerman’s Classification: Technology-deficient, population-resource balance, technology-surplus regions.
Over-population: Population exceeds carrying capacity — resource pressure, environmental degradation (parts of South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa).
Under-population: Resources exceed population needs — labour shortage, untapped potential (Australia, Canada, parts of Russia).
Optimum Population: Ideal balance between population and resources for maximum welfare.
Resource Frontiers: Newly developed regions with low population but high resource potential.
Boserupian Theory: The theory of population growth proposed by Ester Boserup (population growth drives agricultural intensity) is most appropriate for subsistence societies.

Population Resource Regions (NET Notes)

Malthusian Theory (1798)

First systematic study of population–resource relationship.
Population grows geometrically, food supply grows arithmetically.
Preventive checks: Celibacy, late marriage, moral restraint
Positive checks: War, famine, disease

Optimum Population Theory

Optimum level of population for a given area where per capita income is maximised.

Part C: UGC NET Specific Topics

These topics are part of the UGC NET syllabus only.

Sources of Population Data

📘 Syllabus Coverage

Syllabus	Topic Details
UGC NET	Sources: census, sample surveys, vital statistics, data reliability and errors

Get the Presentation ↗ | Watch the Video ↗

Key Concepts

Census: Complete enumeration of population — decennial in India. The first census in India was conducted in 1872.
- De-jure Method: Enumeration based on the permanent address of individuals.
- De-facto Method: Enumeration based on the current address where people are found at the time of the census.
Sample Surveys: National Sample Survey (NSS/NSSO), Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) — representative sampling.
Vital Statistics Registration: Registration of births, deaths, marriages — Civil Registration System (CRS) in India, Sample Registration System (SRS).
Data Reliability and Errors: Coverage errors, content errors, sampling errors, non-sampling errors. Age-sex misreporting, digit preference.
International Sources: UN Population Division, World Bank, WHO — standardized datasets for comparison.
Census of India: History, methodology, enumeration process, data dissemination. Census 2011 highlights.

Population Projection (NET Notes)

Quetelet (1835): Propounded population projection method.
Arithmetic Method: \(P_p = P_t + \frac{n(P_1 - P_2)}{N}\)
Geometric Method: \(P_p = P_1(1 + r)^n\)
Growth Component Method: Considers fertility, mortality, and migration separately (more practical).
Economic Method: Studies how birth/death/migration are affected by economic factors.

Fertility and Mortality Analysis

📘 Syllabus Coverage

Syllabus	Topic Details
UGC NET	Fertility and Mortality Analysis (indices, determinants and world patterns)

Get the Presentation ↗ | Watch the Video ↗

Key Concepts

Fertility Measures: Crude Birth Rate (CBR), General Fertility Rate (GFR), Age-Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR), Total Fertility Rate (TFR), Gross/Net Reproduction Rate (GRR/NRR).
Fecundity: The biological capacity to reproduce (the potential to bear children), as opposed to fertility, which is the actual reproductive performance.
Net Reproduction Rate (NRR): The number of daughters that would be born to a female if she passed through her lifetime conforming to the age-specific fertility and mortality rates.
Determinants of Fertility: Age at marriage, education (especially female), contraceptive use, economic development, cultural and religious factors, government policies.
Mortality Measures: Crude Death Rate (CDR), Age-Specific Death Rate (ASDR), Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR), Life Expectancy at Birth.
Determinants of Mortality: Healthcare access, nutrition, sanitation, epidemiological transition, living conditions.
World Patterns: High fertility in Sub-Saharan Africa, low in Europe/East Asia. Mortality declining globally but disparities persist.
Epidemiological Transition (Omran): Shift from infectious to degenerative/chronic diseases as causes of death.

Population Composition and Characteristics

📘 Syllabus Coverage

Syllabus	Topic Details
UGC NET	Age, sex, rural-urban, occupational structure, educational levels

Get the Presentation ↗ | Watch the Video ↗

Key Concepts

Age-Sex Structure: Population pyramids — expansive (young population), constrictive (ageing), stationary (stable).
Sex Ratio: Males per females (or vice versa). India’s adverse sex ratio, though Kerala and parts of Southern India have very high sex ratios due to higher female life expectancy. In urban India, female work participation is lower than male, and the sex ratio is significantly lower than in rural areas.
Rural-Urban Composition: Urbanization levels, rural-urban migration, peri-urban growth.
Horizontal Occupational Mobility: Refers to the process of change in the occupation from one type to another.
2011 Census Highlights (Religion & Caste):
- Highest proportion of Christian population: Mizoram.
- Highest proportion of Hindu population: Himachal Pradesh.
- Highest proportion of Scheduled Castes (SC): Punjab (percentage to total population).
- Highest absolute number of Scheduled Castes (SC): Uttar Pradesh.
- High proportion of Muslim population: Assam (among states).
Tribal Population Percentage: In decreasing order of percentage of Scheduled Tribes to total population (Census 2011), the sequence is Manipur > Odisha > West Bengal > Punjab.
Occupational Structure: Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary sectors — shift from primary to service economy.
Educational Levels: Literacy rates, gross enrolment ratios, educational attainment — gender and regional disparities.
Dependency Ratio: Ratio of dependent (0-14, 65+) to working-age population — demographic dividend vs. ageing challenge.
Ethnic, Linguistic, and Religious Composition: Diversity indices, spatial patterns, geopolitical implications.

Population Composition & Pyramids (NET Notes)

Population Pyramids (3 Types)

Expansive: Wide base, narrow top (Developing countries: India, Africa)
Constrictive: Narrower base than middle; declining birth rate, ageing (European countries)
Stationary: Equal % in all age groups; stable (Developed nations)

Population Dynamics Measures

Crude Birth Rate (CBR) / Crude Death Rate (CDR): Per 1000 population per year.
Natural Growth Rate: CBR − CDR
Total Fertility Rate (TFR): Average children a woman would have in lifetime.
Dependency Ratio: Non-working age (0–14 + 65+) / working age (15–64).

Settlement Geography

Key Concepts and Types (NET Notes)

Key Definitions

Term	Definition
Settlement	Any form of human habitation — from single dwelling to largest city
Rural Settlement	Settlements dependent on primary activities; low density
Urban Settlement	Settlements dependent on secondary/tertiary activities; high density

Types of Rural Settlements

Type	Description
Clustered / Nucleated	Houses close together; common in India
Dispersed / Scattered	Houses far apart; common in W. Europe, USA
Linear	Along roads, rivers or coastlines
Hamleted	Fragmented into sub-hamlets

Urban Settlement Hierarchy

City → Town → Borough → Municipality → Village

Quick Reference

Key Scholars — Population Geography

Contributors and Their Contributions (NET Notes — Pulakesh Pradhan)

Scholar	Year	Contribution
E.G. Ravenstein	1885	Laws of Migration (9 laws)
E.S. Lee	1966	Push–Pull Theory of Migration
W.J. Reilly	1929	Gravity Model; Law of Retail Gravitation
S.A. Stouffer	1940	Intervening Opportunity Model
Wilbur Zelinsky	—	Migration Transition Model (5 stages)
W.S. Thompson	1929	Demographic Transition — 3 categories
Frank Notestein	1945	Comprehensive Demographic Transition Model
C.P. Blacker	1947	5-stage Demographic Transition
Landry	1909	First demographic model
Coale & Hoover	1958	Modernisation and Demographic Transition
G.T. Trewartha	—	3 types of density; Elements of Geography
Stewart & Warntz	1958	Population Potential concept
Vincent	—	Comparative density
Quetelet	1835	Population projection method
T.R. Malthus	1798	Population–resource theory
William D. Pattison	—	Four traditions of geography
Wolfanger	1935	Podzols and laterites — intensive cultivation

Notes compiled by Pulakesh Pradhan — Population Geography (NET)

Population Geography Quick Reference

Key Books and Authors

Book	Author
Geography of Population	J. Beaujeu-Garnier
A Prologue to Population Geography	Wilbur Zelinsky
Population Geography	R.C. Chandna
An Essay on the Principle of Population	Thomas Robert Malthus (1798)

Theories and Models

Theory / Concept	Propounder	Description
Malthusian Theory	Thomas Malthus	Population grows geometrically, food arithmetically; positive & preventive checks
Demographic Transition Model	W.S. Thompson (1929) & F.W. Notestein (1945)	Transition from high birth/death rates to low birth/death rates (4/5 stages)
Mobility Transition Model	Wilbur Zelinsky (1971)	Links phases of migration to demographic transition
Laws of Migration	E.G. Ravenstein (1885)	Most migrants travel short distances; urban areas attract more migrants
Push and Pull Factors	Everett Lee (1966)	Factors driving migration (push out) and attracting migration (pull in)
Optimum Population	Edwin Cannan	Population size that yields highest per capita income

Key Terms

Dependency Ratio: Ratio of dependents (0-14 and 65+) to the working-age population (15-64).
Total Fertility Rate (TFR): Average number of children a woman would have in her reproductive years (Replacement rate = 2.1).
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): Number of deaths of infants under 1 year per 1,000 live births.
Sex Ratio: Usually expressed as females per 1,000 males (in India) or males per 100 females (globally).

Notes compiled by Geography Team