Political Geography

Spatial dimensions of political power, borders, states, and geopolitics.

Author

Geography Team

Official Syllabus

NEP-2020 Syllabus

Core I Paper XXII — Political Geography and Globalisation

**(4 Credit, Theory: 45hrs, Practical: 30hrs)*

**Unit I* - Political geography: concept, nature, scope and evolution - Concept of state, nation and nation-state - Attributes of state: frontiers, boundaries, buffer zone, population, territory, sovereignty - Geopolitics: concept, and theories (Heartland and Rimland)

**Unit II* - Political geography and systems of government: Federalism, Local self-government administration - Creation of new states - Political geography of resource conflicts: inter-state river water sharing disputes - Conflicts on forest rights and mineral resources - Politics of Displacement: Issues of relief, compensation and rehabilitation (Dams, SEZs)

**Unit III* - Geo-Economic and Political Blocks: UNO, SAARC, ASEAN, NATO, EU, OPEC, BRICS - India as a global power with special reference to G20 - India and its relationship with neighbouring countries: Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Sri Lanka

UGC NET Syllabus

Unit VII — Political Geography

Boundaries and Frontiers (with special reference to India)
Heartland and Rimland Theories
Trends and Developments in Political Geography
Geography of Federalism, Electoral Reforms in India, Determinants of Electoral Behaviour
Geopolitics of Climate Change, Geopolitics of World Resources, Geo-politics of India Ocean
Regional Organisations of Cooperation (SAARC, ASEAN, OPEC, EU)
Neopolitics of World Natural Resources

NET Political Geography — Detailed Syllabus (Pulakesh Pradhan)

Syllabus Topics

Definition and Scope of Political Geography
Geopolitics
Global Strategic Views (Heartland, Rimland)
Concept of Nation, State, and Nation-State
Boundaries and Frontiers
Politics of World Resources
Geography of Federalism

Most Important Topics for Exam (NET Notes)

High-Yield Topics

Heartland Theory
Rimland Theory
Geopolitics
State, Nation, Nation-State
World Political Geography
Types of Boundary

Welcome to the Political Geography module of Geography OpenCourseWare.

Part A: Common Topics (NEP-2020 & UGC NET)

These topics are covered in both the NEP-2020 undergraduate syllabus and the UGC NET syllabus.

Concept, Nature, and Scope of Political Geography

📘 Syllabus Coverage

Syllabus	Topic Details
NEP-2020	Unit I — Political geography: concept, nature, scope and evolution
UGC NET	Trends and Developments in Political Geography

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Key Concepts

Definitions: The study of the spatial distribution of political processes and spatial patterns produced by political decisions. (e.g., R. Hartshorne, N.J.G. Pounds).
Evolution:
- Early phase: Environmental determinism (Ratzel, Semple), Geopolitics (Kjellén, Haushofer).
- Mid-20th Century: Functional approach (Hartshorne), Areal differentiation.
- Modern/Critical phase: Systems analysis, critical geopolitics, electoral geography, political ecology.
Scope: Ranges from local (electoral redistricting) to national (state formation, boundaries) to global (geopolitics, international organizations).
Approaches: Morphological (studying structure), Functional (how a state functions), Behavioural, Political Economy approach.

Nature & Scope of Political Geography (NET Notes)

Definitions

Ratzel: *“Political Geography is the study of the state as an organism attached to the soil”
Hartshorne: *“Political Geography is concerned with the variation of political phenomena from place to place…”
Pounds: *“Political Geography is the study of the variation of political phenomena over the earth’s surface”

Scope

Geography of state boundaries and frontiers, geopolitics, electoral geography, international organisations, war and peace, political regions.

Geopolitics vs. Political Geography

Geopolitics: Applied/policy-oriented, studies world power, associated with national interest. (Mahan, Mackinder, Spykman, Haushofer)
Political Geography: Academic/theoretical, spatial variation of political phenomena, objective. (Ratzel, Hartshorne, Pounds)

World Political Map — Shapes of States

Compact: Poland, Cambodia
Elongated: Chile, Norway
Fragmented: Philippines, Indonesia
Perforated: South Africa (Lesotho)
Prorupt: Thailand, Namibia
Enclaves/Exclaves: Enclave (surrounded), Exclave (separated).

State, Nation, and Nation-State

📘 Syllabus Coverage

Syllabus	Topic Details
NEP-2020	Unit I — Concept of state, nation and nation-state; Attributes of state
UGC NET	Trends and Developments in Political Geography

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Key Concepts

State: A politically organized territory with a permanent population, defined territory, and a government with sovereignty (e.g., India, France).
Nation: A group of people with a shared cultural identity, history, language, or religion, and a strong sense of unity (e.g., the Kurds, the Palestinians).
Nation-State: When the geographical boundaries of a state coincide exactly with the cultural boundaries of a nation (e.g., Japan, Iceland) — an ideal rarely achieved perfectly.
Stateless Nation: A nation without a sovereign state of its own (e.g., Kurds, Tibetans).
Attributes of a State:
- Territory: Land, territorial waters, airspace.
- Population: Citizens and residents.
- Government: Administrative structure.
- Sovereignty: Supreme authority over its territory, free from external control.

State, Nation, and Territoriality (NET Notes)

Definitions & Etymology

State: Political entity with fixed territory. From Latin ‘status’. “I am the state” — Louis XIV. Four elements: Territory, Population, Government, Sovereignty.
Nation: Socio-cultural entity. From Latin ‘nasci’ (to be born). Implies common ancestry.
- Hartshorne (1950): Kinship of belonging together, in-groups vs outsiders.
- John Stuart Mill: Mankind united by common sympathies.
Nation-State: Boundaries of state coincide with cultural boundaries of nation.
Nationalism: Desire of groups to achieve self-government.

Territoriality

From Robert Ardrey’s The Territorial Imperative (1966).
An area of space defended as an exclusive preserve; extended from animal behavior to human political geography.

Boundaries and Frontiers

📘 Syllabus Coverage

Syllabus	Topic Details
NEP-2020	Unit I — Frontiers, boundaries, buffer zone
UGC NET	Boundaries and Frontiers (with special reference to India)

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Key Concepts

Frontiers: Geographic zones or belts that separate states. A Frontier is fundamentally a separation zone between two states or political entities. Margin of settlement, outward-oriented, dynamic, transitional (historical concept, now largely replaced by boundaries).
Boundaries: Precise linear dividing lines defined by treaties and demarcated on the ground. Inward-oriented.
Boundary Classification (Genetic):
- Antecedent: Drawn before the area was highly populated (e.g., 49th parallel US-Canada).
- Subsequent: Drawn after settlement, demarcated based on settlements and is modified by human activities and cultural traits (e.g., India-Pakistan borders).
- Superimposed: Forced upon a landscape by outside powers, ignoring cultural realities (e.g., colonial borders in Africa).
- Relict: Ceased to function but its imprint remains on the landscape (e.g., Great Wall of China, Berlin Wall).
Morphological Classification: Geometric (straight lines), Physiographic (rivers, mountains — e.g., Rio Grande).
Buffer Zone/State: Weak, independent state located between two major, rival powers (e.g., historical Nepal between British India and China/Tibet).

Boundaries and Frontiers (NET Notes)

Key Distinction

Frontier: Geographical, Integrating factor, Area.
Boundary: Political, Separating factor, Line.

Types of Frontiers (Area)

Natural / Physical: Mountains, rivers, deserts.
Ethnic / Anthropological: Based on ethnicity/culture.
Geometrical / Astronomical: Latitudes/longitudes.
Political: Defined by agreement.

Boundary Classification

Evolutionary Process: Arbitrary, Evolutionary, Arbitration.
**By Origin (Jones, 1945 — 4-stage model):*
1. Allocation: Political decision.
2. Delimitation: Drawn on map.
3. Demarcation: Marked on ground.
4. Administration: Enforced and managed.
By Nature: Antecedent (before settlement), Subsequent (after settlement), Superimposed (external power), Relic (historical), Consequent (cultural divide).

Geopolitical Theories: Heartland and Rimland

📘 Syllabus Coverage

Syllabus	Topic Details
NEP-2020	Unit I — Geopolitics: concept, and theories (Heartland and Rimland)
UGC NET	Heartland and Rimland Theories

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Key Concepts

Geopolitics: Term coined by Rudolf Kjellén. The study of the effects of Earth’s geography on politics and international relations.
Heartland Theory (Halford Mackinder, 1904/1919):
- Divided world into the “World-Island” (Eurasia+Africa) and peripheral islands.
- The “Heartland” (pivot area) is the vast interior of Eurasia, inaccessible to sea power, dominated by land power (railways).
- Dictum: “Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland; Who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island; Who rules the World-Island commands the World.”
- Critique: Ignored the potential of modern technological advancements, especially air power and nuclear weapons, which transcend land barriers.
Rimland Theory (Nicholas Spykman, 1942):
- Refuted Mackinder. Argued the coastal fringes (Rimland) of Eurasia are more important than the Heartland due to their demographic weight, resources, and access to both sea and land.
- Dictum: “Who controls the Rimland rules Eurasia; who rules Eurasia controls the destinies of the world.”
- Heavily influenced US Cold War “Containment” policy.
Seapower Theory (A.T. Mahan): Emphasized control of the seas and strategic chokepoints.

Geopolitical Theories — Detailed Concepts (NET Notes)

1. Sea Power Concept — Alfred Thayer Mahan (1890)

The Influence of Sea Power upon History (1890).
Control of sea lanes = control of world trade and military power. Strong navies needed.

2. Heartland Theory — Halford J. Mackinder

Source: Licchavi Lyceum

1904 Model: The Geographical Pivot of History. 4 religious regions = 2/3 world pop coinciding with Five Seas.
1919 Model: Democratic Ideals and Reality. Replaced ‘Pivot area’ with ‘Heartland’ due to German rise & Russian communism.
- Dictum: *“Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland; Who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island; Who rules the World-Island commands the World.”
1943 Model: The Round World and the Winning of the Peace. Introduced ‘Lenaland’ and ‘Mainland’.

3. Rimland Theory — Nicholas Spykman (1944)

Geography of the Peace. Opposed land-based power.
Rimland: Inner crescent of amphibian states (land + sea). Sections: European coastland, Arabian Middle-East, Asiatic monsoon land.
Dictum: *“Who controls the Rimland rules Eurasia; Who rules Eurasia controls the destinies of the World.”

4. Geopolitik — Karl Haushofer & Rudolf Kjellén

Rudolf Kjellén: Coined ‘Geopolitik’ (Den Staat als Lebensform). State as a biological organism.
Karl Haushofer (1924): Edited Zeitschrift für Geopolitik. “A science which deals with the dependence of political events upon the soil.”

5. Later Scholars

Donald W. Meinig (1958): Heartland and Rimland in Eurasian History.
Saul B. Cohen (1973): Geography and Politics in a World Divided. Hierarchical model: Geostrategic and Geopolitical regions.

Systems of Government and Federalism

📘 Syllabus Coverage

Syllabus	Topic Details
NEP-2020	Unit II — Federalism, Local self-government administration, Creation of new states
UGC NET	Geography of Federalism

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Key Concepts

Unitary State: Power centralized in a single national government (e.g., France, UK, China). Works best in compact states with homogeneous populations.
Federal State: Power divided vertically between a central government and sub-national units (states/provinces) (e.g., USA, India, Australia). Accommodates regional diversity and large territories.
Geography of Indian Federalism: Asymmetrical federalism. Reorganization of states initially on linguistic lines (States Reorganisation Act, 1956), later addressing regional inequalities (creation of Uttarakhand, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Telangana).
Local Self-Government: Decentralization to grassroots level. In India: 73rd (Panchayati Raj) and 74th (Municipalities) Amendments creating a three-tier system.
Centripetal vs. Centrifugal Forces: Hartshorne’s concept. Centripetal forces bind a state together (nationalism, institutions, transport network); Centrifugal forces pull it apart (ethnic conflict, regionalism, physical barriers).

Geography of Federalism (NET Notes)

Neumann (1955): *“Federalism is seen as one of the devices to curb the evil use of power by dividing it among a number of competing power units.”

Key Features of Federal State

Division of powers between central and state/provincial governments
Written constitution
Independent judiciary
Dual citizenship (in some cases)

Types of Political Organisation

Unitary State: All power at centre (France, UK, Japan).
Federal State: Powers divided between centre and regions (USA, India, Germany).
Confederation: Loose union; member states retain sovereignty (EU partially).

Regional Organisations of Cooperation

📘 Syllabus Coverage

Syllabus	Topic Details
NEP-2020	Unit III — Geo-Economic and Political Blocks: UNO, SAARC, ASEAN, NATO, EU, OPEC, BRICS
UGC NET	Regional Organisations of Cooperation (SAARC, ASEAN, OPEC, EU)

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Key Concepts

Supranationalism & Intra-regional Cooperation: Voluntary association of states for mutual benefit. Benefits include increased bargaining power, economic growth, and political stability (it does not aim to limit access to resources).
Economic Blocs:
- EU (European Union): Deepest integration — free movement of goods, services, capital, people. Common currency (Eurozone).
- ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations): Economic and security cooperation in SE Asia. It does not act to introduce standard currencies among member states.
- OPEC (Org. of the Petroleum Exporting Countries): Cartel coordinating oil policies and prices.
Strategic/Political Blocs:
- NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization): Collective defense alliance.
- UNO (United Nations): Global governance, peacekeeping, international law.
Regional/Emerging Blocs:
- SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation): Hindered by India-Pakistan tensions. The headquarters of SAARC is situated at Kathmandu.
- BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa): Emerging economies challenging Western-dominated financial architecture.

India and its Neighbouring Countries

📘 Syllabus Coverage

Syllabus	Topic Details
NEP-2020	Unit III — India and its relationship with neighbouring countries
UGC NET	Boundaries and Frontiers (with special reference to India)

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Key Concepts

International Boundaries: Indian states sharing international boundaries with exactly three countries include Sikkim, West Bengal, and Arunachal Pradesh.
India-Pakistan: Radcliffe Line, LOC (Line of Control), Siachen Glacier. The boundary is partially marked by rivers, notably the Ravi River. Issues: Kashmir dispute, cross-border terrorism, Indus Water Treaty.
India-China: McMahon Line, LAC (Line of Actual Control). Issues: Border disputes in Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh, Tibet issue, String of Pearls strategy.
India-Bangladesh: Longest land border, Radcliffe Line. Resolved issues: Land Boundary Agreement (enclaves), maritime boundary. Ongoing: Teesta river water sharing, illegal migration.
India-Nepal: Open border (1950 Treaty), Kalapani dispute.
India-Myanmar: Free Movement Regime, insurgency in Northeast India.
India-Sri Lanka: Palk Strait, Katchatheevu island, Tamil ethnic issue, Chinese influence in ports (Hambantota).
Geopolitics of the Indian Ocean: India’s “Necklace of Diamonds” vs. China’s “String of Pearls”. Importance of SLOCs (Sea Lines of Communication).

Part B: NEP-2020 Specific Topics

These topics are part of the NEP-2020 undergraduate programme only.