Geographical Techniques / Cartography and Geo-Spatial Techniques
Sources of Geographic Information: Spatial & Non-Spatial
- Sources of geographic information: spatial (maps, RS images, GPS, field surveys) & non-spatial (statistics, reports, interviews)
- Primary vs secondary sources of data; classification of spatial data
Types of Maps: Topographic, Thematic, Cadastral
- Types of maps: topographic maps, thematic maps, cadastral maps, navigational charts
Scientific Basis of Cartography: Generalization & Symbolization
- Scientific basis of cartography: map projections, generalization, symbolization, scale
Geographical Coordinates, Graticules & Grid
- Geographical coordinates: latitude & longitude; geographic grid; parallels & meridians
- Graticules: construction & representation on maps
Types of Scales: RF, Graphic, Statement & Diagonal
- Types of scales: RF (Representative Fraction), graphic/bar scale, statement scale; diagonal scale construction
Choropleth Maps: Construction & Class Intervals
- Choropleth maps: construction, class intervals (equal interval, quantile, natural breaks, SD), design
Isarithmic (Isopleth/Isoline) Maps
- Isarithmic (isopleth/isoline) maps: types (isohyet, isotherm, isobar, isohypse), construction & interpolation
Dasymetric Maps: Concept & Ancillary Data
- Dasymetric maps: concept; ancillary data use; comparison with choropleth
Chorochromatic (Qualitative) Maps
- Chorochromatic (qualitative) maps: nominal data representation; land use maps
Flow Maps: Types & Construction
- Flow maps: linear (desire lines), graduated (proportional), network flow; direction representation
Data Representation: Pie, Bar & Line Diagrams
- Data representation: pie diagrams — construction, uses, limitations
- Bar diagrams: simple, multiple, compound, deviation bars; uses & limitations
- Line graphs: arithmetic, semi-log, log-log; interpretation
Map Projections: Concept & Properties
- Map projections: concept of projection; properties (conformality, equivalence, equidistance, azimuthality)
Cylindrical Projections: Mercator, Transverse Mercator
- Cylindrical projections: Mercator (conformal), cylindrical equal-area, transverse Mercator
Conical Projections: Albers & Lambert Conformal
- Conical projections: simple conic, Albers, Lambert conformal conic (one & two standard parallels)
Zenithal/Azimuthal Projections
- Zenithal/Azimuthal projections: gnomonic, stereographic, orthographic, Lambert azimuthal equal-area
- Transformation of area, distance & direction in projections; choice of projection for different purposes
Geological Map Interpretation: Dip, Strike & Stratigraphy
- Geological map interpretation: bedding planes, strike, dip — measurement & representation
- Geological structures: folds (anticline, syncline) & faults on maps; stratigraphy; rock sequence reading
Slope Determination: Wentworth’s & Smith’s Methods
- Slope determination: Wentworth’s method; Smith’s method; slope categories
GIS Database: Raster & Vector Formats
- GIS database: raster format — grid cells, resolution, types (DEM, satellite imagery)
- GIS database: vector format — points, lines, polygons; topology
Attribute Data Management & Relational Database
- Attribute data: attribute tables; relational database; one-to-one, one-to-many relationships
Functions of GIS: Conversion, Editing & Analysis
- Functions of GIS: data conversion (format transformation, rasterization/vectorization)
- GIS editing: on-screen digitizing, attribute editing, error correction
- GIS analysis: spatial analysis, network analysis, surface analysis, geostatistics
DEM: Types, Creation & Applications
- DEM: concept, types (DSM, DTM, nDSM), creation from contours/lidar/photogrammetry, applications
Georeferencing: Coordinate Systems, Datum & Projections
- Georeferencing: coordinate systems (geographic, projected); datum (WGS84, Everest); map projections
GIS Applications: Thematic Cartography & SDSS
- GIS applications: thematic cartography; spatial decision support systems (SDSS); urban planning; resource management
Remote Sensing: Electromagnetic Spectrum & Atmospheric Windows
- Remote sensing — Electromagnetic spectrum: wavelength regions, atmospheric windows
Sensors: Passive vs Active; Platforms & Orbital Parameters
- Sensors: passive (optical, thermal) vs active (RADAR, LiDAR); pushbroom vs whiskbroom
- Platforms: ground, airborne, satellite (polar orbit, geostationary); orbital parameters
Resolution Types: Spatial, Spectral, Temporal, Radiometric
- Resolution types: spatial, spectral, temporal, radiometric — concepts & tradeoffs
Elements of Air Photo & Satellite Image Interpretation
- Elements of air photo interpretation: tone, texture, shape, size, shadow, pattern, association, site
- Satellite image interpretation: band combinations (true colour, false colour composite), indices
Photogrammetry & Types of Aerial Photographs
- Photogrammetry: concept, stereo viewing, orthorectification, aerial triangulation
- Types of aerial photographs: vertical, oblique (high, low); scale; overlap (forward, side lap)
Digital Image Processing: Correction & Enhancement
- Digital image processing: preprocessing (radiometric, geometric correction); enhancement techniques
Supervised Classification: Training Samples & Classifiers
- Supervised classification: training samples, classifiers (MLC, SVM, RF), class separability
Unsupervised Classification: K-means & ISODATA
- Unsupervised classification: K-means, ISODATA, cluster analysis; labelling clusters
LULC Classification & Accuracy Assessment
- LULC classification: legend design (Anderson’s system), accuracy assessment (confusion matrix, kappa)
NDVI: Formula, Range & Applications
- NDVI: formula, range, applications in vegetation monitoring, crop health, drought detection
Developments in RS: Hyperspectral, LiDAR, SAR, GEE
- Developments in RS: hyperspectral sensing, LiDAR, SAR, Google Earth Engine, cloud computing
Big Data Sharing: Open Data Portals in RS
- Big data sharing: open data portals (USGS EarthExplorer, Copernicus, ISRO Bhuvan, NASA EARTHDATA)
- Applications of RS in NRM: forest cover monitoring, wetland mapping, snow cover, groundwater recharge zones
GPS Components: Space, Ground & Receiver Segments
- GPS components: space segment (24+ satellites), ground control segment (master control station), user receiver segment
GPS Applications in Geography
- GPS applications: navigation, surveying, geo-tagging, precision agriculture, disaster tracking
Central Tendency: Mean, Median & Mode
- Central tendency: arithmetic mean, median, mode — calculation, uses, limitations
Measures of Dispersion: SD, CV & Variance
- Measures of dispersion: range, mean deviation, standard deviation, variance, coefficient of variation
Measures of Inequality: Gini, Lorenz & Hoover Index
- Measures of inequality: Gini coefficient, Lorenz curve, Hoover index
Sampling: Types, Design & Errors
- Sampling: probability sampling (simple random, systematic, stratified, cluster) & non-probability (purposive, snowball, convenience)
- Sample size determination; sampling error vs non-sampling error
Hypothesis Testing: Null, Alternative & p-value
- Hypothesis testing: null hypothesis, alternative hypothesis, Type I & II errors, p-value, confidence interval
Chi-Square Test: Goodness of Fit & Independence
- Chi-square test: goodness of fit & test of independence; conditions; interpretation
t-test: One Sample, Independent & Paired
- t-test: one sample, independent samples, paired; assumptions; interpretation
ANOVA: One-Way, Two-Way & Post-Hoc Tests
- ANOVA: one-way, two-way; F-statistic; post-hoc tests (Tukey, Bonferroni)
Time Series Analysis: Trend, Moving Averages & Trend Fitting
- Time series analysis: trend, seasonality, cyclical & irregular components; moving averages; trend fitting
Correlation: Pearson’s r & Spearman’s Rank
- Correlation: Pearson’s r; Spearman’s rank; assumptions; interpretation; scatter plots
Regression: Linear, Logistic & Spatial
- Regression: simple linear regression; slope, intercept, R²; assumptions; residual analysis
- Logistic regression: binary dependent variable; odds ratio; applications in geography
Composite Index: Normalization, Weighting & Computation
- Measurement of indices: composite index construction; normalization; weighting
- Making indicators scale-free: min-max normalization, z-score standardization
- Computation of composite index: Human Development Index method; UNDP approach
Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
- Principal Component Analysis (PCA): concept; variance explained; factor loading; scree plot; applications in regionalization
Cluster Analysis: Hierarchical & K-means
- Cluster analysis: hierarchical (dendrogram, Ward’s method) & non-hierarchical (K-means); applications
Morphometric Analysis: Stream Ordering, Bifurcation Ratio & Drainage Density
- Morphometric analysis: stream ordering (Strahler, Horton), bifurcation ratio, drainage density, drainage frequency, basin circularity ratio, elongation ratio, form factor — formulas, calculation & interpretation
Practical: Scale, Projections, Choropleth, Geoprocessing, Classification
- Practical: Scale construction (RF, graphic, diagonal); map projections (Cylindrical, Conical, Zenithal) — construction; choropleth & isopleth maps; slope analysis; water body mapping from imagery; digitization; vectorization & SQL queries; geoprocessing operations (Buffer, Union, Intersection, Merge, Dissolve, Clip); image subsetting & mosaicking; image enhancement; supervised & unsupervised classification; accuracy assessment
Supplementary Topics: Geographical Techniques & Cartography
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