Climatology
Composition of the Atmosphere
- Composition of the atmosphere: nitrogen, oxygen, CO₂, ozone, water vapour, aerosols
Structure of the Atmosphere: Layers & Characteristics
- Structure of the atmosphere: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere & their characteristics
Insolation: Concept & Factors
- Insolation: concept, factors affecting insolation (angle of incidence, duration, transparency)
Heat Budget of the Earth: Albedo & Energy Balance
- Heat budget of the Earth: incoming & outgoing radiation, albedo, energy balance
Temperature: Factors Affecting Distribution
- Temperature: factors affecting temperature distribution
Vertical Distribution of Temperature & Lapse Rate
- Vertical distribution of temperature; lapse rate; temperature inversion (types: radiation, subsidence, frontal)
Temperature Inversions: Types & Causes
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Horizontal Distribution of Temperature & Isotherms
- Horizontal distribution of temperature: isotherms, temperature anomaly, continentality
Atmospheric Pressure: Pressure Belts & Factors
- Atmospheric pressure: factors affecting pressure; pressure belts of the world
Pressure Gradient, Coriolis Force & Geostrophic Wind
- Pressure gradient force; Coriolis force; geostrophic wind; gradient wind
Surface Winds: Trade Winds, Westerlies & Local Winds
- Surface winds: trade winds, westerlies, polar easterlies, monsoon winds, local winds (Foehn, Bora, Mistral, Loo)
Upper Air Circulation: Jet Streams & Rossby Waves
- Upper air circulation: jet streams (polar, subtropical), index cycle, Rossby waves
Air Masses: Types, Source Regions & Modification
- Air masses: definition, types (cA, cP, cT, mP, mT), source regions, modification
Fronts: Types, Frontogenesis & Frontolysis
- Fronts: warm front, cold front, occluded front, stationary front; frontogenesis & frontolysis
Temperate (Extratropical) Cyclones
- Cyclones: temperate (extratropical) cyclones — formation, structure & lifecycle
Tropical Cyclones: Formation, Structure & Tracks
- Tropical cyclones: formation, stages, structure, tracks & impact
Anticyclones: Types & Associated Weather
- Anticyclones: types (cold, warm), characteristics & associated weather
ENSO: El Niño — Causes & Global Teleconnections
- ENSO events: El Niño — causes, mechanism & global teleconnections
La Niña & Southern Oscillation Index
- La Niña — characteristics & impacts
ENSO Impact on Indian Monsoon
- Southern Oscillation Index (SOI); Walker Circulation; ENSO impacts on Indian Monsoon
Indian Monsoon: Mechanism & Characteristics
- Indian Monsoon: Southwest & Northeast Monsoon; onset & withdrawal; ITCZ & Monsoon trough
- Mechanism of Monsoon: thermal theory, dynamic theory, jet stream theory
Barotropic & Baroclinic Conditions
- Barotropic & baroclinic conditions: definitions & significance in weather systems
Condensation Processes & Types of Clouds
- Condensation processes: dew, frost, fog, mist, clouds; types of clouds (cirrus, cumulus, stratus, nimbus)
Precipitation: Bergeron-Findeisen & Collision-Coalescence Theories
- Precipitation: Bergeron-Findeisen (ice crystal) theory; collision-coalescence theory
Forms & Distribution of Precipitation
- Forms of precipitation: rain, snow, sleet, hail, drizzle; measurement & distribution
Climate Change in the Past: Evidences & Causes
- Climate change in the past: evidences (ice cores, pollen analysis, tree rings, fossil records)
Milankovitch Cycles & Solar Variability
- Causes of past climate change: orbital variations (Milankovitch cycles), volcanic eruptions, solar variability
Greenhouse Effect & Global Warming
- Greenhouse effect: mechanism, greenhouse gases, enhanced greenhouse effect
- Global warming: causes, trends & consequences
Ozone Layer: Depletion & Montreal Protocol
- Ozone layer: formation, depletion (CFC, Montreal Protocol), ozone hole
Human Impact on Global Climate
- Human impact on global climate: urbanization, deforestation, industrialization, land use change
Köppen’s Climatic Classification
- Climatic classification: Köppen’s system — types (A, B, C, D, E), criteria & world distribution
Thornthwaite’s Climatic Classification
- Thornthwaite’s classification: potential evapotranspiration, moisture index, efficiency index
Meteorological Hazards: Cyclones, Thunderstorms & Tornadoes
- Meteorological hazards — Cyclones: formation, tracks, impact & preparedness
- Meteorological hazards — Thunderstorms: formation, lightning, hailstorms
- Meteorological hazards — Tornadoes: formation, Fujita scale, distribution
Meteorological Hazards: Heat Waves, Cold Waves & Drought
- Heat waves & cold waves: definitions, causes, health impacts & India context
- Drought: types (meteorological, hydrological, agricultural, socioeconomic), PDSI, SPI
Cloudburst & GLOF
- Cloudburst: definition, causes, flash floods & examples in India
- GLOF (Glacial Lake Outburst Flood): formation, triggers, case studies in Himalayas
Practical: Weather Instruments, Hythergraph, Climograph, Wind Rose
- Practical: Weather measurement instruments (thermometer, barometer, hygrometer, anemometer, rain gauge); hythergraph construction & interpretation; climograph; wind rose diagram; rating curves
Supplementary Topics: Climatology
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